Can Machiavellianism Be Used For Good In The Modern World?

Posted on: May 13th, 2026 by Alan Wareham

Synopsis

(The focus paper is available to DOWNLOAD HERE)

For centuries, Niccolo Machiavelli and his philosophy has been shorthand for manipulation, cynicism, ruthless power and an ends justifies the means approach. Yet beneath the caricature lies an interesting and perhaps uncomfortable question: in a world where power is real, stakes are high, and ideal conditions don’t always exist, can his philosophy be used for ethical purposes?

This paper re-examines Machiavellian reasoning in the context of a decision-making framework. A framework that helps to improve situational awareness and navigating imperfect systems. In Machiavelli’s time, rulers lacked true accountability and legal oversight. Today, however, leaders work within institutional constraints designed to limit abuse. What once preserved political stability may now destroy public trust and manipulation normalises cynicism and incentivises distrust across all levels of society.

But the dilemma of adapting to unpredictable situations in an unpredictable world remains. On occasion, Machiavellian tactics may be called on to restore order. The paper asks are there direct circumstances in which strategic concealment or manipulation of information can be ethically defensible without undermining the moral framework they operate in.

To explore this tension, the paper doesn’t offer an open-ended defence of Machiavellian tactics. Instead, it approaches the question cautiously and explores different schools of thought that interrogates the principles of Machiavellianism, while leaving room for how ideas can co-exist.

The paper also highlights concrete case studies and hypothetical examples across historic and corporate contexts to test Machiavellian ideas in action. These examples are weighed against factors like accountability, the necessity to act, proportionality and consequences. Through looking at these examples, the paper aims to show the distinction between calculated strategy and habitual Machiavellianism. It asks whether ethical vigilance can coexist with tactical choices, and whether power, once displayed, reshapes morality.

“Everyone sees what you appear to be, few experience who you really are.” Machiavelli made this observation centuries ago, referencing the dilemma is often less about what one does than how one is seen.

This insight underscores the ongoing tension between perception and reality in decision-making. While few will fully grasp the intentions behind a strategic choice, the responsibility of the actor doesn’t disappear. Strategy may shape perception, but integrity is revealed in the willingness to answer for one’s choices. Let us explore all of this in depth at the Philosophy Forum on Tuesday 16th June at 7 PM.

What to Expect

The Lit&Phil Philosophy Forum is a space where serious ideas meet joyful exploration. Whether you are a seasoned philosopher or a curious newcomer, our discussions are designed to foster a spirit of open-minded inquiry. We prioritise respectful dialogue, intellectual curiosity, and the shared pursuit of understanding over adversarial debate. This is philosophy as it should be – dynamic, inclusive, and profoundly engaging.

Practical Details

(The focus paper is available to DOWNLOAD HERE)

Note on Attendance: Due to the popularity of these events, places are often fully booked. If you reserve a ticket but later find you cannot attend, we kindly ask that you cancel promptly to allow others the opportunity to join.

Why Plato Matters Now

Posted on: April 30th, 2026 by Alan Wareham

In this talk Professor Angie Hobbs explored three of the key ways (there are many more!) in which Plato’s methodology, arguments and ideas can help us articulate, think through and address contemporary challenges.

Firstly, through his selection of the dialogue form he shows us how difficult issues can be discussed in constructive ways, where the interlocutors collaborate in a search for truth; he also deliberately offers models of how not to do it — dialogues in which one of the interlocutors aims not at truth, but victory by any means — whether through bullying or verbal tricks. Plato thus offers us the tools to help bridge current political, religious and cultural divides and to spot and combat fake news and fallacies; these tools are already proving of great benefit in primary and secondary education and are being expanded: for example, Professor Angie Hobbs has recently been giving training sessions in the question-and-answer technique to the civil service.

Secondly, Professor Angie Hobbs looked at Plato’s ethics of individual and communal flourishing — ‘flourishing’ is a more objective concept than happiness — and indicate how it can assist greatly in matters of healthcare, education, the training of AI systems and urban and environmental planning; Professor Angie Hobbs briefly discussed work she has been doing with the NHS Strategy Unit in how to apply an ethics of flourishing at various points in the care pathway, such as in the prioritisation of waiting lists.

Finally, Professor Angie Hobbs outlined Plato’s brilliant analysis in the Republic of how a democracy can be subverted to tyranny by a cynical demagogue (although Plato was not a great fan of direct democracy — the only kind he knew — he nevertheless thought it greatly preferable to tyranny, of which he had had direct experience in Syracuse, at the court of Dionysius I).  This incisive analysis enables us to remain alert and spot problems in our own democracies before it is too late; in particular, we need to pay attention to Plato’s warning to watch out for the corruption of language (he highlights the abuse of  ‘freedom’) and the subversion of moral terms (such as ‘courage’), and the importance of remaining proactive agents, and not simply reacting to events.

Interview

Read our interview with Professor Angie Hobbs HERE

Can We Build A Poet?

Posted on: March 27th, 2026 by Alan Wareham

Synopsis

(The focus paper is available to DOWNLOAD HERE)

Large Language Models can generate content resembling poetry but is it actually poetry and does this mean we have created a poet? Poetry and poets have existed throughout history and the definitions of both have been debated continuously. This paper attempts to define the acceptance criteria for an artificial poet and how this task could be interpreted by Romantic and Modernist poets. Would either consider the building of an artificial poet possible?

Questions for discussion

  • Is lived experience necessary for poetry, or only for poets?
  • Can meaning exist without intention?
  • If AI learns poetry from human poetry, is it creating anything new or just recombining? Does this matter? Is this just what humans do anyway?
  • Is the fact that AI poetry is preferred to human poetry evidence that LLMs do in fact understand human feeling in the same way that we do? Is it just that the exact mechanism of that understanding is hidden within the model parameters and not understood by us yet?
  • If machines could feel, could a sufficiently advanced AI ever satisfy the Romantic criteria for a “poet for machines”?
  • Do you agree with the limitations of AI with respect to modernist poetry? Does AI actually fulfil Eliot’s theory of poetry better than humans do?
  • Do you agree that AI cannot accurately identify emotions?
  • If you read a poem, feel deeply moved, and later discover it was written by a machine—has the value of the poem changed, or only your interpretation of it?

What to Expect

The Lit&Phil Philosophy Forum is a space where serious ideas meet joyful exploration. Whether you are a seasoned philosopher or a curious newcomer, our discussions are designed to foster a spirit of open-minded inquiry. We prioritise respectful dialogue, intellectual curiosity, and the shared pursuit of understanding over adversarial debate. This is philosophy as it should be – dynamic, inclusive, and profoundly engaging.

Practical Details

(The focus paper is available to DOWNLOAD HERE)

Note on Attendance: Due to the popularity of these events, places are often fully booked. If you reserve a ticket but later find you cannot attend, we kindly ask that you cancel promptly to allow others the opportunity to join.

Interview with Professor Angie Hobbs

Posted on: January 23rd, 2026 by Alan Wareham

Q. When did philosophy first get its hooks into you, and was there a particular moment, teacher, or book that made you think, “Yes, this is for me”?

A. Yes – for Latin A Level, I studied Lucretius De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things) about Epicurus’ philosophy, and I became hooked by the freewill and determinism debate (for the record, I think they are compatible).  Then, studying Classics at University, and trying to decide whether to specialise in philosophy or literature in my final year, I discovered Plato’s Symposium, a brilliant, vibrant, witty and moving dialogue in which a rich array of characters discuss the nature of erotic love, and I realised I didn’t have to choose!  Plato is a great literary artist as well as a great philosopher.

Q. Of all the thinkers you could have devoted your career to, why Plato? Was it his ideas, his style, the sheer ambition of his project, or something more personal that drew you in and kept you there?

A. Well, in addition to his literary artistry, I love the fact that he never speaks in his own voice – he never tells us exactly what he thinks but compels us to think and do philosophy for ourselves.  He draws us into the conversation.  I also completely agree with him (following his mentor, the historic Socrates) that the two fundamental ethical questions are ‘How should I live?’ and ‘what sort of person should I be?’  It is an agent-centred approach (as opposed to the act-centred approaches of the duty-based ethics of Kant or the consequences-based ethics of Bentham and Mill), and invites us to consider the whole person, living a whole life.  It invites us to consider the shape and structure and narrative of a person’s life – and of course the diverse characters in the dialogues present models to emulate and avoid.

Q. Manchester has a strong identity shaped by industry, dissent, and a certain independence of mind. Do you think Plato would have felt at home in a city like this, and if so, what do you imagine he’d be most intrigued by?

A. I think Plato would greatly have approved of Manchester’s independent and radical spirit!  He would also very much have appreciated its commitment to books, life-long learning and ideas.  And the philosopher who argued in the Republic that there should be Philosopher-Queens as well as Philosopher-Kings would I think have been very pleased by the bronze sculpture of the suffragette leader Emmeline Pankhurst in St Peter’s Square, and the Pankhurst Meeting Circle that surrounds it.

Q. The Lit & Phil was founded on the belief that learning should be shared beyond universities and elites. How important is that ideal to you personally, and does it connect with anything in Plato’s own approach to teaching and dialogue?

A. It’s hugely important to me, and the reason why I was created the world’s first (as far as I know) Professor of the Public Understanding of Philosophy – for many years I have combined academic writing and teaching with public talks and media work in television, radio and podcasts and so on, and, increasingly, also with policy and consultancy work, for example with the NHS, the Health Research Authority, the Cabinet Office and other branches of the Civil Service and the World Economic Forum.  My aim is not just to expound the views of different philosophers, but to see how philosophical arguments, concepts and methods might fruitfully be applied to current challenges.   I am definitely inspired by Plato in this endeavour: he wanted his dialogues to reach as wide an audience as possible, and he set up his Academy in Athens not just to train scholars such as Aristotle, but also political leaders and policy advisers.  And in addition to lectures to these elite groups, he also gave public lectures (which, very unusually for the time, women could also attend).

Q. How important is it, given the amount of time and impact of social media and fake news, that young people learn how to think critically, and how can Philosophy help with this?

A. I think it is absolutely vital – for their individual psychological and physical wellbeing, and also for communal issues such as the protection of democracy, combatting pandemics and dealing with climate change.  Many subjects can help young people think critically and assess the veracity of verbal and visual sources and the validity of arguments, but philosophy is exceptionally well-equipped to do this.  I would love social media platforms to be subject to publishing editorial controls, but that seems a long way off, so we must give young people the tools to see through the smoke-and-mirrors of the snake oil merchants trying to deceive, divide and manipulate them.  Another point in philosophy’s favour is that  through its use of imaginary scenarios, counter-factuals and so on, it can also foster creative as well as analytic skills, creativity that the twenty-first century very clearly needs.

Q. Away from lecture theatres and libraries, what does Angie Hobbs enjoy? Are there interests, hobbies, or even guilty pleasures that might surprise people who only know you as a Plato scholar, and do any of them feed back into how you think about philosophy?

A. I have many interests!  Music, the theatre, travelling, nature in both its wild and gardened forms, walking, swimming and yoga … and many sports, especially cricket!  I love Test Match Special and one of my happiest days was being interviewed by Jonathan Agnew in View from the Boundary.  And I have an extensive knowledge of herbs (and grow a wide variety), and brew many of my own concoctions for minor ailments (though I use standard medicine too).

Q. Because you spend your life thinking carefully and philosophically, how easy do you find it to make snap decisions in everyday life, or do you find yourself mentally arguing both sides first?

A. I’m pretty decisive in terms of everyday and aesthetic decisions – I usually choose pretty quickly if I am buying clothes or selecting a paint colour.  I do try to think difficult ethical issues through carefully in a general way, in the hope that when I am called upon to make a quick decision in a crisis or personal situation, I will have done a fair bit of the thinking in advance and will be able to apply the general principles to the particular circumstances.  I find that I am very often applying an updated version of Plato’s ethics and (small ‘p’) politics of flourishing.

Thank you to Professor Angie Hobbs for taking the time to answer our questions.

Our event – Why Plato Matters Now – takes place at the RNCM in Manchester on Wednesday 11 March.

Why Plato Matters Now

Posted on: January 23rd, 2026 by Alan Wareham

In this talk Professor Angie Hobbs explores three of the key ways (there are many more!) in which Plato’s methodology, arguments and ideas can help us articulate, think through and address contemporary challenges.

Firstly, through his selection of the dialogue form he shows us how difficult issues can be discussed in constructive ways, where the interlocutors collaborate in a search for truth; he also deliberately offers models of how not to do it — dialogues in which one of the interlocutors aims not at truth, but victory by any means — whether through bullying or verbal tricks. Plato thus offers us the tools to help bridge current political, religious and cultural divides and to spot and combat fake news and fallacies; these tools are already proving of great benefit in primary and secondary education and are being expanded: for example, Professor Angie Hobbs has recently been giving training sessions in the question-and-answer technique to the civil service.

Secondly, Professor Angie Hobbs will look at Plato’s ethics of individual and communal flourishing — ‘flourishing’ is a more objective concept than happiness — and indicate how it can assist greatly in matters of healthcare, education, the training of AI systems and urban and environmental planning; Professor Angie Hobbs will briefly discuss work she has been doing with the NHS Strategy Unit in how to apply an ethics of flourishing at various points in the care pathway, such as in the prioritisation of waiting lists.

Finally, Professor Angie Hobbs will outline Plato’s brilliant analysis in the Republic of how a democracy can be subverted to tyranny by a cynical demagogue (although Plato was not a great fan of direct democracy — the only kind he knew — he nevertheless thought it greatly preferable to tyranny, of which he had had direct experience in Syracuse, at the court of Dionysius I).  This incisive analysis enables us to remain alert and spot problems in our own democracies before it is too late; in particular, we need to pay attention to Plato’s warning to watch out for the corruption of language (he highlights the abuse of  ‘freedom’) and the subversion of moral terms (such as ‘courage’), and the importance of remaining proactive agents, and not simply reacting to events.

Interview

Read our interview with Professor Angie Hobbs HERE

Book Signing

There will be a book signing event after the talk, hosted by House of Books and Friends, so attendees can meet and buy a signed copy of Professor Hobbs’ Book – ‘Why Plato Matters Now’

Practical Information

The presentation will include time for questions and discussion. Booking is strongly advised.

Access

The venue is wheelchair accessible with an accessible toilet on the ground floor. Please contact us regarding any specific accessibility requirements you may have by emailing events@manlitphil.ac.uk

Can the Law Save the Planet?

Posted on: January 8th, 2026 by Alan Wareham

Synopsis

(The focus paper is available to DOWNLOAD HERE)

Climate change law has emerged as a critical legal discipline in response to the global climate crisis. Unlike traditional laws that impose penalties for wrongdoing, these laws set obligations for governments and organisations to reduce carbon emissions and limit global warming to well below 2°C. Over 3,000 laws and regulations now exist worldwide, forming a framework for climate governance.

Rooted in international environmental law, climate change law began with the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), followed by the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the landmark Paris Agreement (2015). The Paris Agreement introduced flexible, legally binding elements, requiring nations to submit and update Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) every five years, report progress transparently, and mobilise $100 billion annually for climate finance. It also mandates global stocktakes and adaptation planning, aiming to align financial flows with low-carbon development.

National legislation complements these efforts. For example, the UK’s Climate Change Act 2008 set binding emission targets and established oversight mechanisms. Courts have increasingly enforced climate obligations, as seen in Urgenda v Netherlands, where the government was ordered to cut emissions by 25% to protect human rights. Similarly, the Swiss Senior Women case (2024) marked the first international ruling that state inaction violates human rights. Other notable cases include Ogale and Bille v Shell, highlighting corporate accountability, and the West Cumbria Mining judgment, which reinforced stricter environmental assessments.

Despite progress, challenges persist enforcement gaps, political resistance, and unequal capacities among nations. Critics argue climate laws can impose economic burdens, threaten sovereignty, and face practical limitations. Supporters emphasise accountability, global cooperation, and moral responsibility to future generations, asserting that legal frameworks drive innovation, protect ecosystems, and prevent irreversible harm.

The debate centres on whether climate law should reflect ethical duties to future generations and if legal systems can capture these dimensions. While laws provide stability and enforceability, they must balance economic realities with intergenerational justice. Ultimately, climate change law is a cornerstone of global sustainability, translating scientific urgency into actionable policy and fostering international solidarity in the fight against climate change.

Question posed

“To what extent should climate change law reflect moral obligations to future generations, and can legal frameworks adequately capture the ethical dimensions of environmental stewardship?”

  • This question invites discussion on:
  • Intergenerational justice
  • The limits of legal systems in addressing moral duties
  • Whether laws can or should be shaped by ethical principles rather than economic or political interests

What to Expect

The Lit & Phil Philosophy Forum is a space where serious ideas meet joyful exploration. Whether you are a seasoned philosopher or a curious newcomer, our discussions are designed to foster a spirit of open-minded inquiry. We prioritize respectful dialogue, intellectual curiosity, and the shared pursuit of understanding over adversarial debate. This is philosophy as it should be—dynamic, inclusive, and profoundly engaging.

Practical Details

(The focus paper is available to DOWNLOAD HERE)

Note on Attendance: Due to the popularity of these events, places are often fully booked. If you reserve a ticket but later find you cannot attend, we kindly ask that you cancel promptly to allow others the opportunity to join.

A History of Pies and Puddings

Posted on: November 20th, 2025 by Editor-Jo

Food historian Neil Buttery (author of The Philosophy of Puddings and Knead to Know: A History of Baking) explores the history of some of our most beloved British foods: pies and puddings, from their origins on the top tables in medieval meals to the present day, where they are beloved by many (and treated with suspicion by some).

In the Middle Ages, Britain used to have a great tradition of baking huge pies – called coffyns and pasties – filled with whole joints of venison and wild boar. There were large luxurious mince pies too, filled with expensive exotics and plenty of meat, but these fancy pies all pale in comparison to the humongous and rather grotesque Yorkshire Christmas Pye of the Georgian era, filled with the bounties of the northern landowners sent by horse and carriage to their city friends.

The history of puddings is much more convoluted – the simple question of ‘what is a pudding?’ is a surprisingly difficult one to answer: black pudding, haggis, jam roly poly, steamed treacle sponge, trifle, ice cream – how can all of these be puddings? Then there is the added complication of any dessert or afters also called ‘pudding’. The pudding has gone through quite an evolution since its humble origins as a mixture of blood and fat boiled in intestines.

Neil will also present some of his research on regional foods: there’s a regional pudding associated with almost every region of England, why did such a proliferation of regional puddings occur and what does this tell us about the origins of some of our most beloved regional and national pies and puddings: Manchester pudding will, of course be represented, plus Yorkshire pudding (and the fact it’s not from Yorkshire), Cornish pasties (and the fact they’re not from Cornwall) and haggis (and the fact it’s not Scottish). Bombshells these may be – but they tell us much more about the social history of food and how foods become associated with particular places and quickly integrated into the cultural landscape of a region or country.

Refreshments (mulled wine, mince pies, tea, coffee and soft drinks) will be available for an additional cost. Please select the appropriate ticket type when making your booking.

Is Philosophy Progressive

Posted on: September 18th, 2025 by Alan Wareham

This Philosophy Forum is based on a paper I came across in the journal ‘Philosophy Now’ which caught my interest. As a scientist myself (doctor – medical) I have been fascinated by the many new discoveries over the years, particularly in the last century or so, and even more so since the advent of computers, the internet and mobile phones. In medicine huge progress has been made, with diagnostic tests and effective treatment of diseases, along with prevention of many common illnesses and infections. ‘Progress’ is very visible to all.

So, when I saw the title ‘Is Philosophy Progressive?’ I wanted to look into this further – in other words, ‘progress’ can be viewed philosophically in many different ways. Or is the whole subject of ‘Philosophy’ just asking similar questions, but getting many different answers, depending on your point of view, and the views of eminent philosophers? Or does ‘philosophy’ just go round in endless circles, rather than ‘progressing’ (some sceptics may take that view..)?

The debate has been raging for centuries, from at least the time of Galileo, but there is always (and always will be) scope to look at both old and new issues in different ways – and aspects. Indeed, as with many debates, what do we actually mean by ‘progress’ – after all, many new scientific inventions have not always led to positive outcomes. Just look at the state of the world now, with wars and conflicts using new tools of destruction, not even imagined a few decades ago.

About the Session

This illuminating session will be led by Dr Susan Hilton. To enrich your experience, we highly recommend reading Dr Susan Hilton’s thought-provoking focus paper in advance. This resource will provide valuable context and enhance the depth of our collective exploration.

What to Expect

The Lit & Phil Philosophy Forum is a space where serious ideas meet joyful exploration. Whether you are a seasoned philosopher or a curious newcomer, our discussions are designed to foster a spirit of open-minded inquiry. We prioritise respectful dialogue, intellectual curiosity, and the shared pursuit of understanding over adversarial debate. This is philosophy as it should be; dynamic, inclusive, and profoundly engaging.

Practical Details

  • Pre-Event Preparation: The focus paper can be Downloaded Here.
  • Note on Attendance: Due to the popularity of these events, places are often fully booked. If you reserve a ticket but later find you cannot attend, we kindly ask that you cancel promptly to allow others the opportunity to join.

So, come along and present your point of view – or you can just absorb the discussion around you

Should We Permit Voluntary Assisted Dying?

Posted on: June 5th, 2025 by Editor-Jo

Euthanasia is the act of deliberately ending a person’s life to relieve suffering. Assisted suicide is the act of deliberately assisting another person to kill themselves. The English courts have wrestled with challenges to the restrictions on euthanasia and assisted suicide for years, while the government has resisted calls to liberalise the law. Meanwhile, terminally ill people continue to travel overseas to clinics such as Dignitas, to end their lives. Assisted dying raises fundamental questions about respect for individual autonomy, protection of the vulnerable and the role the State should play. This lecture will explain the law and explore arguments for and against liberalisation.

Quakerism

Posted on: May 12th, 2025 by Alan Wareham

In an era increasingly defined by ideological division, social turbulence, and environmental instability, how do we reclaim a sense of purpose, direction, and connection? The Religious Society of Friends—commonly known as Quakers—offers a profound and enduring response: a way of being that transcends dogma and invites us into a practice of spiritual clarity, ethical integrity, and transformative community discernment.

Quakerism is not a rigid doctrine but a lived experience—a journey of listening deeply, living authentically, and bearing witness to the divine spark within all people. Rooted in the powerful stillness of silence yet dynamically committed to meaningful action, the Quaker tradition provides a countercultural model of resilience and hope in an ever-changing world.

About the Session

This illuminating session will be led by Bobby Mears, who brings a wealth of insight to the practice and philosophy of Quakerism. To enrich your experience, we highly recommend reading Bobby’s thought-provoking focus paper in advance. This resource will provide valuable context and enhance the depth of our collective exploration.

What to Expect

The Lit & Phil Philosophy Forum is a space where serious ideas meet joyful exploration. Whether you are a seasoned philosopher or a curious newcomer, our discussions are designed to foster a spirit of open-minded inquiry. We prioritize respectful dialogue, intellectual curiosity, and the shared pursuit of understanding over adversarial debate. This is philosophy as it should be—dynamic, inclusive, and profoundly engaging.

Practical Details

  • Pre-Event Preparation: The focus paper can be downloaded here.
  • Note on Attendance: Due to the popularity of these events, places are often fully booked. If you reserve a ticket but later find you cannot attend, we kindly ask that you cancel promptly to allow others the opportunity to join.

Join us as we delve into the Quaker way of life—a practice of listening and living that offers timeless wisdom for navigating the complexities of our modern age.

Sign up to our newsletter

Sign up to our e-newsletter to receive exclusive content and all the latest Lit & Phil news

* indicates required