Alan Turing was a visionary mathematician, scientist and codebreaker whose key role in deciphering the Enigma code during World War II reached a wide audience in the acclaimed 2014 film ‘The Imitation Game’. However, his work in the post-war years in Manchester also impacted biology and chemistry, as well as laying the groundwork for the development of the modern computer and the concept of Artificial Intelligence.
Photograph portrait of Alan Turing, taken on 29 March 1951.
Early Life and Background
Born on June 23, 1912, in Maida Vale, London, Alan Turing was the second child of Julius and Ethel Turing. His father was a civil servant in the Indian Civil Service, whilst his mother came from a family of engineers. His family was upper-middle-class, and Alan and his brother both attended boarding school at Sherborne in Dorset, as their parents lived overseas. His school years had a profound and complex effect on Turing as he struggled with the school’s classical curriculum and lack of support for his passion for science and mathematics. However, he pursued advanced topics on his own and showed remarkable intellectual independence. During his time at Sherborne, he formed a close friendship with fellow student Christopher Morcom – Morcom’s death at 18 years old from tuberculosis had a significant impact on Turing and led to his lifelong fascination with the mind and consciousness. Turing began to explore the idea that the mind could be mechanised, a theme that would later become central to his work in artificial intelligence.
After leaving school, Turing followed his passion and pursued a degree in Mathematics at King’s College, Cambridge (1931-34) achieving First Class Honours. His primary interest was in pure mathematics, with a strong focus on logic, quantum mechanics, and probability theory. In 1935 he was elected a fellow of King’s College for his work in probability theory. The following year Turing published a seminal mathematics paper, ‘On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungs Problem, which came to be seen as a theoretical basis for today’s computers. It included a definition of the “universal machine”, a computer which held its programme on tape, laying the theoretical foundation for modern computers. Turing continued his studies, completing his PhD in Mathematical Logic at Princeton University in USA under the mathematician Alonzo Church. In 1938 he returned to England and began working for the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park alongside his academic work and lecturing at Cambridge, before joining Bletchley full time following the outbreak of the war.
His wartime efforts at Bletchley Park, particularly in developing the Bombe machine to decrypt German Enigma cipher codes, significantly contributed to the Allied victory. It has been suggested that his codebreaking work shortened the war by three to four years, saving in excess of 20 million lives.
Key Contributions and Achievements in Manchester
The Ferranti Mark 1 and Programming Innovations
After the war, Turing was based at the National Physical Laboratory where he designed the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE – a computer which filled an entire room) and subsequently moved to Manchester University’s Computing Machine Laboratory in 1948, where he helped with the development of the Small Scale Experimental Machine (also known as ‘Baby’) which was the world’s first stored programme computer.
At the University of Manchester, Turing collaborated with engineers like Frederic C. Williams and Tom Kilburn and their efforts culminated in the development of the Manchester Mark 1. At this point, the UK Government Chief Scientist provided a substantial grant to local firm Ferranti and the computer was developed into Ferranti Mark 1 – the first commercially available general-purpose computer.
Manchester University SSEM ‘Baby’ replica on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester.
Advancements in Artificial Intelligence and Morphogenesis
Turing’s work in Manchester also included his pioneering work in artificial intelligence (AI). He proposed the concept of machine learning and introduced the “Turing Test” to assess a machine’s ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour indistinguishable from that of a human. The Turing Test is still used today, and while no AI has definitively passed the test, it is still a valuable framework for evaluating AI’s ability to mimic human conversation and is often used as a benchmark in AI research.
Additionally, Turing delved into mathematical biology, formulating reaction-diffusion models to explain patterns in nature, such as the arrangement of leaves and the stripes on animals, a field now known as morphogenesis. Turing’s groundbreaking 1952 paper, “The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis,” proposed that patterns in biological organisms could be explained by the interaction of two chemicals, which he termed morphogens. These morphogens react and diffuse through space at different rates, forming stable patterns. This idea became known as the reaction-diffusion model. Turing’s equations showed how even a homogeneous collection of cells could spontaneously develop spatial patterns through small instabilities in concentration, providing a plausible mechanism for natural pattern formation.
A Quirky Mind in a Rigorous World
Geniuses are often described as eccentric, and Turing’s eccentric personality often became apparent in his daily habits. At Bletchley Park, he famously chained his tea mug to a radiator to prevent it from being stolen. He was also an exceptional long-distance runner and would often be seen jogging between meetings. Turing once clocked marathon times close to Olympic standard and even attempted to qualify for the 1948 British Olympic team.
Turing’s Personal Life and Persecution
Despite his groundbreaking achievements, Turing faced immense personal struggles due to his homosexuality, which was illegal in the UK at the time. In 1952, he was prosecuted for “gross indecency” after admitting to a consensual relationship with another man. Rather than serve a prison sentence, Turing chose chemical castration through hormone therapy, which caused severe physical and psychological side effects. His conviction led to the loss of his security clearance, barring him from further cryptographic work. Although he continued his research at Manchester, the stigma and surveillance he suffered had a significant impact upon him. On June 7, 1954, Turing was found dead at his home in Wilmslow from cyanide poisoning in an apparent suicide. Decades later, in 2009, he received a posthumous government apology, and, in 2013, a royal pardon. In 2017, the “Alan Turing Law” was enacted to pardon others similarly convicted, finally recognising the enormous injustice he and others had endured.
Impact on Manchester and Beyond
Turing’s work in Manchester had profound implications both locally and globally. The Ferranti Mark 1 not only sealed Manchester’s status as a hub for computer research but also laid the foundation for the UK’s computing industry. Turing’s research in AI and morphogenesis opened new avenues in computer science and biology, influencing generations of scientists. His legacy is commemorated in Manchester through landmarks like the Alan Turing Building at the University of Manchester and the Alan Turing Memorial in Sackville Gardens. In 2021, Turing’s contributions were nationally recognised when he was featured on the UK’s £50 banknote.
Legacy and Inspiration
Alan Turing’s time in Manchester, which is usually overshadowed by his achievements at Bletchley Park, was nevertheless a period of remarkable innovation that significantly advanced the fields of computing, artificial intelligence, and morphogenesis. His work not only transformed Manchester into a centre for technological development but also left lasting marks on the global scientific community.
As a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in the early 1950s, Turing embodied the organisation’s commitment to intellectual curiosity and interdisciplinary exploration.
Lit&Phil Member – Jon Sime